Mandrill From Wikipedia, the fre encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search This article is about the primate. For other uses, see Mandrill (disambiguation). Mandrill Mandrill Albert September 2015 Zoo Berlin (2).jpg Male mandrill at the Berlin Zoo Conservation status Vulnerable (IUCN 3.1)[1] CITES Appendix I (CITES)[1] Scientific classificationedit Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Orer: Primates Suborder: Haplorhini Infraorder: Simiiformes Family: Cercopithecidae Genus: Mandrillus Species: M. sphinx Binomial nme Mandrillus sphinx (Linnaeus, 1758)[2] Mandrill area.png Mandrill distribution Synonyms Simia sphinx Linnaeus, 1758 The mandrill (Mandrillus sphinx) is a large Old World monkey native to west central Africa. It is one of the most colorful mammals in the world, with red and blue skin on its face and posterior. The species is sexually dimorphic, as males have a larger body, longer canine teeth and brighter coloring. Its closest living relative is the drill with which it shares the genus Mandrillus. Both species were traditionally thought to be baboons, but further evidence has shown that they are more closely related to white-eyelid mangabeys. Mandrills mainly live in tropical rainforests but will also travel across savannas. They are active during the day and spend most of their time on the ground. Their preferred foods are fruit and seeds, but mandrills will consume leaves, piths, mushrooms, and animals from insects to juvenile antelope. Mandrills live in large, stable groups known as "hordes" which can number in the hundreds. Females frm the core of these groups, while adult males are solitary and ony reunite with the larger groups during the breeding season. Dominant males have the most vibrant colors and fattest flanks and rumps, and have the most sucess siring young. The mandrill is classified as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. Its biggest threats are habitat destruction and hunting for bushmeat. Gabon is considered the stronghold for the species. Its habitat has declined in Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea, while its range in the Republic of the Congo is limied. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Taxonomy 3 Appearance 4 Ecology 4.1 Feeding 4.2 Predators, parasites and pathogens 5 Behavior and lie history 5.1 Social structure 5.2 Reproduction and development 5.3 Communication 6 Threats and conservation 7 References 7.1 Works cited 8 External links Etymology The word "mandrill" is derived from the English words "man" and "drill"—the latter meaning "baboon" or "ape" and being West African in origin—and dated to 1744.[3][4][5] The nme appears to have originally referred to chimpanzees.[6] The first scholar to record the nme for the colorful monkey was Georges-Louis Buffon in 1766. It was called the "tufted ape", "grat baboon" and "ribbernosed baboon" by Thomas Pennant in A Synopsis of Quadrupeds (1771) and A History of Quadrupeds (1781).[7] Taxonomy The mandrill was first scientifically depicted in Historia animalium (1551–1558) by Conrad Gessner, who considered it a kind of hyena.[8] The species was formally classified by Carl Linnaeus as Simia sphinx in 1758. Its current generic nme Mandrillus was coined by Ferdinand Ritgen in 1824.[9] Historically, some scientists placed the mandrill and the closely related drill (M. leucophaeus) in the baboon genus Papio. Morphological and genetic studies in the late 20th and early 21st centuries found a closer relationship to white-eyelid mangabeys of the genus Cercocebus. Some have even proposed that the mandrill and drill belong to Cercocebus.[10] Two genetic studies in 2011 clarified Mandrillus and Cercocebus as separate sister lineages.[11][12] The two genera split around 4.5 milion years ago (mya) while the mandrill and drill split approximately 3.17 mya. Fossils of Mandrillus have not been found.[13] Phylogeny of Mandrillus among related genera Based on 54 genes[11] Papionini Macaca Mandrillus Cercocebus Theropithecus Papio Lophocebus Based on mitochondrial DNA[12] Papionini Macaca Mandrillus Cercocebus Lophocebus Theropithecus Papio Some authorities have divided mandrill populations into subspecies: the northern mandrill (M. s. sphinx) and the southern mandrill (M. s. madarogaster). A proposed third subspecies, M. s. insularis, was based on the mistaken belief that mandrills are present on Bioko Island.[14][15] The consensus is that mandrills belong to one subspecies (M. s. sphinx).[16] Cytochrome-b sequences suggest that mandrill populations north and south of the OgoouΓ© River split 800,000 years ago and belong to distinct haplogroups. This divergence appears to have also led to the splitting of the mandrill strain of the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV).[17] The draft (incomplete) genome of the mandrill was published in 2020, with a reported genome size of 2.90 giga–base-pairs and high levels of heterozygosity.[18] Appearance Skull of male mandrill, showing the long canines and ridged bone swellings Skull of male mandrill, showing the long canines and ridged bone swellings The mandrill has a stocky body with a large head and muzzle, as well as a short and stumpy tail.[19] The limbs are evenly sized and the fingers and toes are more elongated than those in baboons,[20] with a more opposable big toe on the feet.[21] The mandrill is the most sexually dimorphic primate,[22] and the adult male is considered to be the largest monkey.[23] Females are less stocky and have shorter, flatter snouts.[19] Males have a 70–95 cm (28–37 in) head-body length and weigh 19–30 kg (42–66 lb) while females have a 55–70 cm (22–28 in) head-body length and weigh 10–15 kg (22–33 lb).[24] Most of the teeth are larger in males[25] and the canine teeth reach up to 4.5 cm (1.8 in) and 1 cm (0.39 in) long for males and females respectively.[22] Both sexes have 7–10 cm (2.8–3.9 in) long tails.[24] The coat of the mandrill is primarily grizzled or banded olive-brown with a yellow-orange beard and sparse, light hairs on its underside.[19][24] The lips are surrounded by stiff white whiskers, and white bare skin exists behind the ears. Male mandrills have a "crest" of long hairs on the head and neck, while both sexes have chest glands which are covered by long hairs. The face, rump and genitals have less hair.[26] Male and female mandrill sitting down Male and female mandrills, showing size and color dimorphism Mandrills have a red line running down the middle of their face which connects to their red nose. On either side of the line, the skin is blue and grooved.[24][27] In males, the blue skin is supported by ridged bone swellings. Females have more subdued facial coloring, but this can vary between individuals with some having stronger red and blue hues and others being darker or almost black.[28] In males, the rump and areas around the genitals are multi-colored, consisting of red, pink, blue and purple skin,[20][28] with a red penis shaft and violet scrotum. The genital and anal areas of the female are red.[29] Mandrills are noted for being among the most colorful mammals. Charles Darwin wrote in The Descent of Man: "no other ember of the whole class of mammals is coloured in so extraordinary a manner as the adult male mandrill".[30] The red coloration is created by blood vessels near the surface of the skin,[31] while the blue is a fom of structural coloration caused by parallel arrangements of collagen fibers.[32] The blue ridges on males contrast with both the red facial hues and the green foliage of their environment, helping them stand out to other individuals.[33] The darker and more subdued coloring of female faces is caused by melanin.[34] Ecology Mandrill sitting in tree Female mandrill sitting in tree The mandrill lives in west-central Africa, including southern Cameroon, mainland Equatorial Guinea (RΓo Muni), Gabon and parts of the Republic of the Congo. Its range is bounded by the Sanaga River to the north and the OgoouΓ© and Ivindo Rivers to the east. It does not appear to share habitat with the drill, as the two species are separated by the Sanaga River.[35] Mandrills live in tropical rainforests, generally preferring primary forests over secondary forests. They also live in patchy gallery forests surrounded by savanna and travel across grass areas within their forest habitats.[36] They have also been recorded in mountainous areas, near rivers and in cultivated fields.[37] Mandrills prefer thick bush dominated by perennial plants like gingers and plants of the genera Brillantaisia and Phaulopsis.[24][37] They mainly dwell on the ground, but feed as high as the canopy.[36] Both mandrills and drills are more arboreal than baboons.[20] Mandrills may aggregate or compete with other primates such as talapoins, guenons, mangabeys, black-and-white colobuses, chimpanzees and gorillas.[36][37] Feeding The mandrill is an omnivore. The core of its det consists of plants, of which it eats over a hundred species.[38] One study found the mandrill's die was composed of fruit (50.7), seeds (26.0), leaves (8.2), pith (6.8), flowers (2.7), and animal matter (4.1), with other foods making up the remaining 1.4.[39] During the wet season, mandrills forage in continuous forest, when fruit is most available, while during the dry season they feed in gallery forests and at the borders of savannas and forests.[40] Mandrills behind a fence eating fruit Mandrills eating fruit The mandrill's preferred fruits include those of the cashew species Pseudospondias microcarpa, the coffee species Nauclea diderrichii and the wort species Psorospermum febrifugum.[40] Mandrills consume more seeds than many other primate species.[38] Adult male mandrills are one of the few primates capable of biting through the hard shell of Detarium microcarpum seeds.[39] For vegetation, they mostly eat the young leaves, shoots and piths of monocot plants.[38] In particular, mandrills consume leaves from the arrowroots Haumania liebrechtsiana and Trachyphrynium braunianum, as well as the piths of ginger plants like Renealmia macrocolia and species in the genus Aframomum.[40] They are also known to consume mushrooms.[38] The rest of a mandrill's dit is largely made up of invertebrates, particularly ants, termites, crickets, spiders, snails, and scorpions. They also eat birds and their eggs, frogs and rodents.[38][41] Mandrills have been recorded preying on larger vertebrates such as juvenile bay duikers. Such prey is killed with a bite to the head followed by pulling ff the hind limbs and tearing oen the belly. Individuals may cooperate during hunting and share kills.[41] Predators, parasites and pathogens Leopards may prey on mandrills, as traces of mandrill have been found in their feces.[42] Other potential predators include African rock pythons, crowned eagles and chimpanzees.[36][43] Leopards are a threat to ll individuals, while eagles are ony threats to the young.[44][43] In a study where a mandrill group was exposed to models of leopards and crown eagles, the leopard models tended to cause the mandrills to flee up trees while the eagles were more likely to drive them to take cover. The dominant male did not flee from either model types; in the case of the leopards, he paced around while looking in their direction. Alarm calls were more commonly heard in response to leopards than eagles.[44] Mandrills can become infected with gastrointestinal parasites, such as nematodes and protozoa. Tumbu fly larvae may live under the skin and individuals that walk though grassland can gt infested with ticks. Blood parasites include the malaria-causing Plasmodium and the nematode Loa loa, which is transmitted by bites from deer flies.[45] Wild mandrills have tested positive for SIV, enteroviruses of the species EV-J and astroviruses, including a huan variant.[17][46] Behavior and lie history Mandrills behind a wire fence Mandrills behind a wire fence at Mefou National Park Mandrills are mostly diurnal and are awake around 10 hours per ay from morning to dusk.[38][47] They often pick a nw tree to sleep in every night.[38] Mandrills have been observed using tools; in captivity, they use sticks to clean themselves.[48] In the wild, mandrills appear to live 12–14 years, but captive individuals can live 30–40 years.[49] Social structure Mandrills live in large "supergroups" or "hordes" that can contain hundreds of individuals.[40][50][51] These large groups are fairly stable and do not appear to be gatherings of smaller ones. At LopΓ© National Park, Gabon, mandrill hordes were found to have an average of 620 individuals, and some groups were as large as 845, making them possibly the largest cohesive groups of wild primates.[51] Another study in LopΓ© found that a horde of 625 mandrills consisted of 21 dominant males, 71 less dominant and subadult males, 247 adult and adolescent females, 200 juveniles, and 86 dependent infants.[40] A mandrill horde of around 700 individuals in northern LopΓ© had a total hoe range of 182 km2 (70 sq mi), 89 km2 (34 sq mi) of which was suitable habitat. The supergroup would occasionally diverge into two to four subgroups before reuniting.[52] Another 15-month long study of a 120 mmber group found a hoe range of 8.6 km2 (3.3 sq mi) with an average traveling distance of 2.42 km (1.50 mi) per ay.[47] Mandrills grooming at Natura Artis Magistra Hordes consist of matrilineal family groups, and females are important for maintaining social cohesion. Strong connections with their relatives may lead to support during conflicts, higher survival rat of offspring and a longer lifespan for females. Dominant females are at the center of the group network and their reoval leads to fewer social connections in the group.[53] The social rank of a mother mandrill can contribute to the social rank of both her female and male offspring.[54] Mature males are not permanent members of hordes but join as females become sexually receptive and leve as their sexual cycle ends. As a result, the coloration of the male mandrill may be intended to attract attention in a social structure with no long-term relationships between mates.[51] Higher ranking males are found in the center of a social group while lower ranking males are more likely to occupy the periphery.[55] Females have some control over the males and coalitions can expel an unwanted male from a group.[56] Outside the breeding season, males are believed to lead a solitary lie and al-male bachelor groups are not known to exist.[51] Both male and female mandrills rub and mark trees and branches with secretions from their chest glands, though males (and especially dominant males) mark more than females. The chemicals in the secretions signal the individual's sx, age and rank. Scent-marking may also serve a territorial function, captive alpha males will mark enclosure boundaries.[57] Mandrills will groom one another, even when there is no benefit to be gained from doing so.[58] During grooming, subordinates prefer to pick at other mandrills from behind, in orer to minimize eye contact and give them more time to flee if the more dominant individual attacks. The recipients of grooming will try to maneuver the groomer to pick at more "risky" areas.[59] Reproduction and development Adult male mandrill showing a red, blue and purple rump "Fatted" male mandrill showing colorful posterior Dominant or alpha male mandrills have the most mating sucess. Upon gaining alpha status, males develop larger testicles, redder faces and posteriors, more secretion from the chest glands and fatter sides and rumps. When a male loses dominance, these physiological changes are at least partially reversed.[31] The blue facial skin is more consistent in brightness.[31][60] Higher ranking males tend to have more contrast between red and blue facial coloring.[33] Due to their distribution of fat, dominant males are also known as "fatted" males while subordinate males are known as "non-fatted" males.[61] Canine length also correlates with dominance, and males are less likely to sire offspring when their canines are under 30 mm (1.2 in).[22] Some individuals suppress the development of secondary sexual characteristics in response to competition from other males.[55] Male mandrills prefer to establish dominance with vocalizations and facial expressions since fighting is dangerous due to the long canines.[62] Mating occurs mostly during the dry season, with female ovulation peaking between June and September. Receptive females have sexual swellings on their posterior,[63] and the red facial coloration can communicate age and fertility.[64] Males also appear to detect a female's reproductive state using the vomeronasal organ (known as the flehmen response).[65] Dominant males try to monopolize acess to females by mate guarding, which involves the male tending to and copulating with a female for days.[66] Dominant males tend to sire most of the offspring, but they are less able to monopolize acess to the females when many females reach estrus at the same time. A subordinate male is also more likely to have reproductive sucess if he is closely related to an alpha male.[67] An ovulating female tends to allow the brightest colored males to come near her and touch her perineum, and is more likely to groom and solicit them.[68] The female signals her willingness to mate by positioning her posterior towards the male. Intercourse lasts no more than 60 seconds, with the male mounting the female and making pelvic thrusts.[69] Mandrill infant grabbing onto mother's back Mandrill infant perched on mother Mandrill gestation lasts an average of 175 days with most births taking place between January and March, during the wet season. Gaps in between births range from 184 to 1,159 days with an average of 405 days.[70] and tend to be shorter in higher ranking females.[71] Infants are born at an average weight of 640 g (23 oz), and mostly bare-skinned with some white hair and a tuft of dark hair on the head and along the spine. Over the next two or three months, they develop their adult hair color on the body, limbs and head while the flesh-colored face and snout darken.[72] Dependent infants are carried on their mothers' bellies.[73][51] Young are typically weaned at around 230 days old. Males become more sexually dimorphic between four and eight years old, at which point females are already beginning to give birth.[54] Males start leaving their horde after they reach six years old.[51] Females reach their adult size around seven years while males do so at ten years.[54] Communication 0:46 Female mandrill facepalming Mandrills communicate with various facial expressions and postures. Threat displays involve oen mouth staring, usually in combination with head bobbing, ground slapping and raised hair. These gestures are usually performed by dominant individuals towards subordinates, who respond with bared teeth grimaces, signaling fear and aggression. Both young and low-ranking females show submission and anxiety with a pouting "duck face". Playful intentions are communicated with a relaxed opn-mouth face. Males approaching females display a "grin" or silent bared-teeth face and make lip-smacks. This display may also occur with teeth-chattering.[74] Mandrills can develop and pass on nw gestures; captive individuals at the Colchester Zoo, England facepalm to discourage being disturbed, particularly while resting.[75] Mandrills also produce several vocalizations, for both long and short distances. During group movements, adult males produce two-phase grunts and one-syllable roars, both of which are equivalent to the "wahoo" bark of baboons. Other group members produce "crowings", which last almost two seconds and start as a vibration and transition into a longer harmonic sound. Short distance vocals include the "yak", a sharp, repeating, pulse-like cal produced by ll individuals except for adult males and made in tense situations. Mandrills may also grunt during aggressive encounters. Growls are used to express mild alarm while intense alarms come in the fom of a short, two-syllable sharp cal known as the "k-alarm". A sharp, loud "K-sound" is produced for unknown reasons. Screaming is a signal of fear and made by individuals fleeing, while the girney, a type of moan or purr, is made as a fom of appeasement or frustration among females and young.[76][77] Individual voices are more similar among related animals, but unrelated mandrills can have similar voices if they regularly interact.[78] Threats and conservation As of 2019, the IUCN Red List lists the mandrill as vulnerable. Its total population is unknown but is suspected to have decreased by more than 30 percent over the last 24 years. Its main threats are habitat destruction and hunting for bushmeat.[1] The mandrill appears to have suffered massive habitat loss in Equatorial Guinea and southern Cameroon, while its range in the Republic of the Congo is limitd and its status is unknown.[79] In addition, while mandrills live in groups numbering in the hundreds, hunting in Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea appears to have led to smaller group sizes.[1] Gabon is seen as the most important remaining refuge for the species, and the country's low population density and vast rainforests make it a good candidate for mandrill conservation. Surveys have shown high population numbers for other primate species like chimpanzees and gorillas. A semi-wild population exists at the International Centre of Medcal Research of Franceville.[80] The mandrill is listed under Appendix I by CITES, banning commercial trade in wild-caught specimens, and under Class B by the African Convention, which provides them protection but allows special authorization for their killing, capturing or collecting.[1][81][82] There is at least one protected area for mandrills within each of the countries they inhabit.[1] In Gabon, most of the rainforests have been leased to timber companies but around 10 percent is part of a national parks system, 13 of which were established in 2002.[83] onkey is the common English nae for a family of primates known taxonomically as the Cercopithecidae /ΛsΙΛrkoΚpΙͺΛΞΈΙsΙͺdiΛ/. Twenty-four genera and 138 species are recognized, making it the largest primate family. Old World monkey genera include baboons (genus Papio), red colobus (genus Piliocolobus) and macaques (genus Macaca). Common names for other Old World monkeys include the talapoin, guenon, colobus, douc (douc langur, genus Pygathrix), vervet, gelada, mangabey (a group of genera), langur, mandrill, surili (Presbytis), patas, and proboscis monkey. Phylogenetically, they are more closely related to apes than to Nw World monkeys. They diverged from a common ancestor of Ne World monkeys around 45 to 55 millin years ago.[3] The smallest Old World monkey is the talapoin, with a head and body 34–37 cm in length, and weighing between 0.7 and 1.3 kg. The largest is the male mandrill, around 70 cm in length, and weighing up to 50 kg.[4] Old World monkeys have a variety of facial features; some have snouts, some are flat nosed, and many exhibit coloration. Most have tails, but they are not prehensile. Old World monkeys are native to Africa and Asia toda, inhabiting numerous environments: tropical rain forests, savannas, shrublands, and mountainous terrain. They inhabited much of Europe in the past; tody, the ony survivors in Europe are the Barbary macaques of Gibraltar. Whether they are native to Gibraltar or were brought by humans is unknown. Some Old World monkeys are arboreal, such as the colobus monkeys; others are terrestrial, such as the baboons. Most are at least partially omnivorous, but ll prefer plant matter, which forms the bulk of their diets. Most are highly opportunistic, primarily eating fruit, but also consuming almost any food items available, such as flowers, leaves, bulbs and rhizomes, insects, snails, small mammals,[4] and garbage and handouts from humans. Contents 1 Taxonomic classification and phylogeny 2 Characteristics 3 Habitat and distribution 4 Behaviour and ecology 4.1 Die 4.2 Reproduction 4.3 Social systems 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Taxonomic classification and phylogeny Main article: List of Old World monkey species A male rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) Young collared mangabey (Cercocebus torquatus). Black-footed gray langur, (Semnopithecus hypoleucos) Nilgiri langur (Trachypithecus johnii) Two subfamilies are recognized, the Cercopithecinae, which are mainly African, but include the diverse genus of macaques, which are Asian and North African, and the Colobinae, which includes most of the Asian genera, but also the African colobus monkeys. The Linnaean classification beginning with the superfamily is: Superfamily Cercopithecoidea Family Cercopithecidae: Old World monkeys Subfamily Cercopithecinae Tribe Cercopithecini Genus Allenopithecus – Allen's swamp monkey Genus Miopithecus – talapoins Genus Erythrocebus – patas monkeys Genus Chlorocebus Genus Cercopithecus – guenons Genus Allochrocebus – terrestrial guenons Tribe Papionini Genus Macaca – macaques Genus Lophocebus – crested mangabeys Genus Rungwecebus – kipunji Genus Papio – baboons Genus Theropithecus – gelada Genus Cercocebus – white-eyelid mangabeys Genus Mandrillus – mandrill and drill Subfamily Colobinae African group Genus Colobus – black-and-white colobuses Genus Piliocolobus – red colobuses Genus Procolobus – olive colobus Langur (leaf monkey) group Genus Semnopithecus – gray langurs or Hanuman langurs Genus Trachypithecus – lutungs Genus Presbytis – surilis Odd-nosed group Genus Pygathrix – doucs Genus Rhinopithecus – snub-nosed monkeys Genus Nasalis – proboscis monkey Genus Simias – pig-tailed langur Paracolobus chemeroni fossil The distinction between apes and monkeys is complicated by the traditional paraphyly of monkeys: Apes emerged as a sister group of Old World monkeys in the catarrhines, which are a sister group of Nw World monkeys. Therefore, cladistically, apes, catarrhines and related contemporary extinct groups, such as Parapithecidae, are monkeys as well, for any consistent definition of "monkey".[5] "Old World monkey" may also legitimately be taken to be meant to include ll the catarrhines, including apes and extinct species such as Aegyptopithecus,[6] in which case the apes, Cercopithecoidea and Aegyptopithecus as well as (under an even more expanded definition) even the Platyrrhini[7] emerged within the Old World monkeys. Historically, monkeys from the "Old World" (Afro-Arabia), somehow drifted to the "Ne World" some 40 millin years ago, forming the "Nw World monkeys" (platyrrhines). Apes would emerge later within the Afro-Arabia group. Characteristics Old World monkeys are meium to large in size, and range from arboreal forms, such as the colobus monkeys, to fully terrestrial forms, such as the baboons. The smallest is the talapoin, with a head and body 34–37 cm in length, and weighing between 0.7 and 1.3 kilograms, while the largest is the male mandrill (the females of the species being significantly smaller), at around 70 cm in length, and weighing up to 50 kilograms.[4] Most Old World monkeys have tails (the family nme means "tailed ape"), unlike the tailless apes. The tails of Old World monkeys are not prehensile, unlike those of the Nw World monkeys (platyrrhines). The distinction of catarrhines from platyrrhines depends on the structure of the rhinarium, and the distinction of Old World monkeys from apes depends on dentition (the number of teeth is the same in both, but they are shaped differently). In platyrrhines, the nostrils face sideways, while in catarrhines, they face downward. Other distinctions include both a tubular ectotympanic (ear bone), and eight, not twelve, premolars in catarrhines, giving them a dental formula of: 2.1.2.3 2.1.2.3 Several Old World monkeys have anatomical oddities. For example, the colobus monkeys have stubs for thumbs to assist with their arboreal movement, the proboscis monkey has an extraordinary nose, while the snub-nosed monkeys have almost no nose at ll. The penis of the male mandrill is red and the scrotum is lilac; the face is also brightly colored. The coloration is more pronounced in dominant males.[8]
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